360 Internet Security 2013 is anti-virus and anti-malware protection software for Windows PCs. The installer is a light 17MB, and though the overall. · · Aprende a instalar y descargar este bestial Antivirus Gratis en tu Windows, todas las versiones!!! No importa cual tengas :) Pulsa "mostrar mas"!!! Norton 3. 60 - Wikipedia. Norton 3. 60, developed by Symantec, was an “all- in- one” security suite that combined online protection with performance tuning. What distinguished this suite from Norton Internet Security is the inclusion of optimization and problem solving tools. Norton 3. 60 was distributed as a boxed copy, download or was preinstalled on computers as OEM software. Norton 3. 60 was discontinued after being cut from the overhauled Norton line in mid- 2. Norton Security. [1]Version history[edit]Project Genesis[edit]Symantec announced Project Genesis on February 7, 2. Genesis would differ from Symantec's other consumer security products by incorporating file backup and performance optimization tools with antivirus capabilities and a firewall.[2]Phishing protection and real- time heuristics were also planned. 200 million users believe that we're the best. 360 Security provides 360° of protection, backed by a leading antivirus engine. Our intelligent boost and clean. Windows Vista compatibility was a major aspect of Genesis. Genesis was slated for release in September. In May 2. 00. 5, Microsoft announced Windows Live One. Care, a security suite with similar functionalities, slated for release in 2. Genesis was renamed Norton 3. May 3. 1, 2. 00. 6. Its feature set was confirmed—it would have the same functionalities as Norton Internet Security—with file backup, performance tools, phishing protection, and real- time heuristics. ![]() 360 Total Security - Free Antivirus & Internet Security for PC [Download]: Amazon.co.uk: Software.A public beta test was planned for summer 2. The final release date was set at the end of 2. The same day, Mc. Afee announced Falcon, a security suite with similar functionalities as Norton 3. One. Care.[5] However, those dates were delayed. One. Care was launched in summer 2. Falcon entered public beta testing. Some viewed Norton 3. Microsoft's antivirus software, One. Care. However, with the release of One. Care, some saw Symantec as lagging behind its rivals. Mark Bregman, Symantec's vice president, claimed the upcoming Norton 3. One. Care, stating "We somehow left the wrong impression in the market place that there's Windows Live One. Care from Microsoft, there's Falcon from Mc. Afee, and there's nothing from Symantec."[6]The first public beta was delivered in November 2. Windows XP. A second beta was subsequently released December 2. Windows Vista build 6. After 1. 00,0. 00 people tested the software, Symantec began distribution to retailers in February 2. Version 1. 0[edit]Version 1. February 2. 6, 2. This version was the first Symantec product to use SONAR to detect zero- day viruses. It monitors applications for malicious behavior, taking action as needed.[1. The backup and restore functionality allowed users to back up files online or to a hard drive, CD, or DVD. Performance optimization tools allowed users to clear web browser history and temporary files. A disk defragmenter was bundled as part of the optimization tools. Phishing protection integrates with Internet Explorer, warning users of fraudulent sites. In Windows XP, a 3. RAM, and 3. 00 MB of hard disk space is required. Under Vista, an 8. MHz processor, 5. MB of RAM, and 3. MB of hard disk space is required. Reviews cited Norton 3. Norton Internet Security 2. PC Magazine found the phishing protection feature to be more effective at blocking access to fraudulent sites than Internet Explorer 7 and Firefox 2.[1. However, reviewers highlighted the lack of manual control for advanced users. CNET noted the lack of phishing protection for browsers other than Internet Explorer, such as Mozilla Firefox. CNET also highlighted the lack of wireless network tools, such as notifying users when someone uninvited joins the network or help encrypting wireless signals. PC Magazine criticized the antispam filter of Version 1. Version 2. 0[edit]Version 2. March 3, 2. 00. 8. The backup feature can now inscribe data to Blu- ray and HD DVD discs. Multiple installations of Norton 3. When backing up files online, the user can control the amount of bandwidth Norton uses.[1. A registry cleaner is bundled with the performance tools, allowing the user to remove invalid entries. Phishing protection for Firefox was added. Supplementing the phishing protection is the Norton Identity Safe, which stores login credentials to websites. A network map allows users to view the status of other Norton installations on networked computers and view basic information about each computer. System requirements remain the same as version 1. PC Magazine found the spam filter to be inaccurate, with a 2. CNET encountered problems when installing version 2. Version 3. 0[edit]. Norton 3. 60 version 3. Version 3. 0 was released on March 4, 2. This version uses the same codebase as Norton Internet Security 2. For earlier versions, Symantec rewrote code specifically for Norton 3. Version 3. 0 incorporates Norton Safe Web, offered as a standalone service earlier. Safe Web integrates with Firefox and Internet Explorer as a toolbar, blocking access to fraudulent and malware hosting sites. This toolbar also includes a search box, routing search queries typed in the box through the Ask. The toolbar does not share code with the Ask. Mc. Afee, Trend Micro, and other antivirus vendors. Due to criticism of the search functionality, Symantec announced the Ask. The capability to back up files to a flash drive was introduced in this release. Files stored on a flash drive can be copied to another computer without Norton 3. Norton also creates a virtual drive in Windows Explorer, allowing users to browse their backup files, stored locally or online. Users can restore individual files using the drag- and- drop technique. Version 3. 0 does not retain previous versions of files and skips files which are open by another program. A startup application manager was included in this release, allowing users to control which programs start at login. To complement the application manager, Norton can measure the impact programs have on login time.[2. PC Magazine highlighted version 3. PC Magazine also noted a support session with a Symantec technician who used the shareware application Malwarebytes Anti- Malware to remove malware from a computer, referring to it as an "online Norton program". Controversy was raised over the fact the technician misleadingly referred to the program as a Symantec product.[2. Version 4. 0[edit]Version 4. February 1. 7, 2. This version adds many new security features found in Norton Internet Security 2. Version 4 also features a GUI change. The prominent colors now match the gold and black sunburst of Norton Internet Security. The widely criticized antispam has been replaced with the far more effective Brightmail, which according to Symantec gives 2. Version 5. 0[edit]Version 5. February 2. 01. 1 and offers improved performance and virus detection. It also provides updated versions of SONAR (version 3) and System insight. Download Insight now not only supports Internet Explorer and Firefox browsers only, but also supports the following clients: QQ (Chat), MSN Messenger (Chat), Limewire (P2. P), MSN Explorer (Browser, E- mail & Chat), Opera (Browser), Outlook (E- mail), Thunderbird (E- mail), Windows Mail (E- mail), Chrome (Browser), Bit. Torrent (P2. P), AOL (Browser), Yahoo Messenger (Chat), Safari (Browser), File. Zilla (File Manager), Outlook Express (E- mail). It features a new and enhanced interface with more realistic icons and animations and it also includes Norton Widgets - a platform that integrates other Symantec online services directly in the UI. Also new for this version are Reputation scan, that gives the user clear insight of the loaded applications and files and the Safeweb for Facebook, which scans the links on the wall to verify their safety. Links to Norton Recovery Tools have been added in the scanner's interface and in the start menu folder to help in restoring a highly infected system. The backup and restore functionality has also been improved. Passmark performance test 0. Norton 3. 60 5. 0 as the fastest and lightest all- in- one suite. Version 6. 0[edit]Featured Metered Broadband modes, and easily remembers logins and other personal info while protecting against online identity theft. Version- Less (unofficially 7. This version of Norton was released on September 5, 2. Norton Anti. Virus and Norton Internet Security products. It was described as Version- Less in Symantec's press release[2. There is no specific version reference anywhere in the description of the software. The software is compatible with Windows 8. This version of Norton 3. Norton also introduced the extra tune up disk optimizer. Version 2. 1 (2. 01. Version 2. 1 of Norton's security suite was released on September 4, 2. Total Security - Free Antivirus & Internet Security for PC [Download]: Amazon. Software. 36. 0 Total Security is an unified solution for your PC security and performance. With “Full Check”, you can examine the overall condition of your computer within minutes, and optimize it to the best state with just one click. Major functions are as follows: “Virus Scan” integrates award winning antivirus engines from 3. Cloud Scan Engine, 3. QVMII AI Engine, Avira, and Bitdefender to provide you the ultimate virus detection and threat protection.“Speedup” optimizes your system services and boot up items to start up your PC faster.“Cleanup” frees up your disk space by removing junk files and unwanted plugins to maximize system performance. Total Security also comes with a considerable number of handy utilities in the Toolbox. Game Booster creates the best gaming experience for any PC users. Turbo. VPN protects your online activities and unblock geo- restricted content; Connect 3. And many more for you to discover. Starting from version 9, users of 3. Total Security are able to upgrade to premium membership to enjoy an ad- free experience, the stylish Lively Theme, and more exclusive discount. Total Security is not just a security software which guards you from viruses and cyber threats but a computer wellness keeper taking care of your computer from security to performance. Whether it’s online or offline it’s there for you 2.
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Senior US Official Claimed the FCC Got 'Hacked' After Security Professionals Found No Proof. A senior US official has admitted to being the source behind a claim that the FCC was “hacked” in 2. Internally, however, the agency’s security team had assessed there was no evidence of a malicious intrusion. Dr. David Bray, who was the FCC’s chief information officer until last month, spoke privately with a reporter at Motherboard roughly a week after the FCC’s public comment website—known as the Electronic Comment Filing System (ECFS)—locked up after comedian John Oliver, host of HBO’s Last Week Tonight, directed his audience to flood the FCC with comments supporting net neutrality. Bray told the reporter that the agency had been the target of a “malicious attack.”Bray was also the first US official to announce that the FCC had been attacked this year, too, after Oliver asked his audience once again to submit pro- net neutrality comments using the ECFS. Afterwards, the system became inaccessible on and off for roughly eight hours beginning the night of May 7, 2. The FCC’s decision to withhold detailed analysis of the attack has prompted skepticism from reporters and the public at large. Multiple FCC sources—including one with direct knowledge of the agency’s security operations—tell Gizmodo that, in June 2. In the wake of Oliver’s net neutrality segment, the agency’s Network Security Operations Center (NSOC) pored over data collected by various logs. But it was unable to locate any proof to support Bray’s claim that a malicious attacker was responsible for the comment system’s failure. Drawing from the statements of a senior FCC official (Bray), Motherboard described on June 1. ECFS, a legacy system that had received few upgrades since its Clinton- era rollout.
![]() ![]() The ECFS was initially designed for lawyers and other knowledgeable sources to provide feedback on pending FCC regulations; but in a new era of digital civic engagement, the system became the principal tool for aggregating comments from the public about proposed rules to gut net neutrality. Motherboard described a “malicious” attack carried out against the FCC, attributing the tip to a high- level agency source: The agency had been “hacked” by “unknown digital assailants” using what was described as “database Denial of Service tactics.” It was an “onslaught,” the site said. Motherboard’s source was so well placed, in fact, the author wrote confidently that the FCC itself had “confirmed” the news. The claim was supported by a second source as well, who had used words like “exploited” and “assaulted” to describe the incident.)“It was never the official position of the FCC that it was a DDo. S attack.” But the tip was apparently based on the assumptions of the senior US official whose opinion did not comport with the findings of his agency’s security professionals.“We couldn’t find any evidence of the attack,” said a former security contractor, who spoke on condition of anonymity to discuss their work at the agency. We never took any remediation or mitigation steps with regard to security. There was no attack.”The FCC’s press office was quick to refute reports that “scripts or automated bots” were responsible for the comment system’s troubles. If anything, a high volume of traffic caused the collapse,” a reporter for Engadget wrote after speaking with the agency’s spokesperson. We stand by our story,” Motherboard’s editor in chief tweeted in response, saying that a “high- level FCC source” had described a “malicious attack.” (Motherboard confirmed last week that its source—whom Gizmodo has confirmed was Bray—used that term explicitly.)“It was never the official position of the FCC that it was a DDo. S attack,” Gigi Sohn, former counselor to then- Chairman Tom Wheeler, told Gizmodo. Yet, Bray “did not deny and there was never any doubt that he talked to Motherboard,” she said.“My goal was to communicate on background that the commenting system had experienced abnormal ‘dead record locks’ and [had] not crashed from high comment volume,” Bray told Gizmodo on Saturday. Multiple events were happening and the abnormal activity observed raised concerns that this was a form of malicious attack to tie up the system.”“When pressed on the term ‘hack,’ I emphasized the system was not compromised,” he said, despite having given Motherboard a green light to use of word “hacked,” which appeared in its headline. Bray was interviewed later that year by Tech. Republic and the Washington Post about ongoing efforts to revamp the FCC’s aging IT infrastructure. He never refers to a cyberattack crippling the ECFS. Dead- locked records. In its official statement, the agency said in that a byproduct of receiving such a high volume of comments is what’s known as a “dead record lock,” whereby the ECFS’s database was overwhelmed in June 2. This created difficulty for people trying to submit and search for filed comments,” it said. But the agency made no mention of any malicious activity. Moreover, a “dead record lock” is not itself indicative of an attack. When overwhelmed, database systems are designed to initiate a “record lock” to preserve its integrity—i. While in this state, the ECFS would be unable to accept new comments, which is what happened on June 2, 2. Last Week Tonight net neutrality segment. Following the segment, the security operations center reviewed data collected in the FCC’s system logs, in its intrusion detection system, and from the multiple web and appliance- based firewalls from which logs were aggregated into a security information event manager, or SIEM. Mc. Afee. The security team came up empty handed. The former security contractor told Gizmodo that the presence of any automated bots or scripted activity would have been detected through the use of meta- data analysis. The millisecond latency of requests coming from the same IP source or session ID would have been a dead give away. Request activity faster than 1. No abnormalities were detected, however. The source described how an attack on the ECFS could have taken advantage of the record- lock procedure to force the system to freeze. A bot could have been engineered to flood the ECFS with comments attributed to hundreds or thousands of fictitious or stolen identities. Immediately after the comments were filed, the bot would’ve then sent a request to view the comment before the system had sufficient time to actually create the record. A flood of these requests would’ve inevitably overwhelmed the system.“I checked for evidence of the theoretical attack above at the FCC in 2. Instead, the logs showed a high volume of commenters requesting access to the FCC web page that by default shows a list of newly submitted comments, what the source described as “normal intended use of the website which is in no way malicious.”Weakness in the FCC codebase. After the record lock, the security team and the agency’s contracted developers discovered a weakness in the ECFS’s Sybase software, which was outdated by more than a decade. A “weakness” is viewed as being less threatening than a “vulnerability” exploitable by hackers.) The software was, essentially, not configured to update new database rows properly, which created an inefficient procedure for adding new comments. This caused the system to lock up just after Oliver directed his viewers to to swarm the FCC’s site. The development team documented the discovery in an application called Jenkins—the management system used to test and track updates to the FCC’s entire codebase.“The security team was in agreement that this event was not an attack,” the former contractor said. The security team produced no report suggesting it was an attack. The security team could not identify any records or evidence to indicate this type of attack occurred as described by Bray. The security team did not provide Bray with access to any security systems or logs that he might have performed his own independent analysis to come to this conclusion.”His position as chief information officer notwithstanding, Bray’s access to security logs were restricted, the source said, under the principle of least authority—you only give people access to systems necessary to perform their job. If there was a security threat, Bray would have had to have relied on the security team to provide proof. When Bray reached out on June 3, 2. Google Has Spent At Least $1. Billion On Self- Driving Car Tech: Report. Billions are being spent on developing self- driving cars, as seen in megadeals like General Motors dumping $1 billion into Cruise Automation, or Intel paying $1. Mobileye. Now, thanks to an ongoing lawsuit between Google’s self- driving car project and Uber, we now know how much Google has spent on developing autonomous tech: at least $1. IEEE Spectrum. Google is currently locked in a bitter legal fight with Uber over whether an engineer at the former …Read more The figure emerged as a result of Google failing to redact it in a deposition from Shawn Bananzadeh, a financial analyst at Waymo. Here’s more from Spectrum: When asked by an Uber lawyer how an estimate for developing one of the trade secrets, number 9. Bananzadeh replied: “My understanding is that it is a cost that captures the entire program spend from inception to the period of time where it stops.” He later clarified that meant from 2. Even more » Account Options. Sign in; Search settings. TheINQUIRER publishes daily news, reviews on the latest gadgets and devices, and INQdepth articles for tech buffs and hobbyists. The new Garmin inReach SE+ (yellow) and Explorer+ (orange) are best described as conventional handheld GPS units with satellite text messaging. Sebastian Thrun got the go- ahead for the project from Larry Page, to the end of 2. Throughout Bananzadeh’s deposition, every dollar amount was redacted to protect Waymo’s confidential commercial information. Every time, that is, except in the Uber lawyer’s very next question: “The calculation that was the basis of the $1. Trade Secret 9. 0 is the same calculation that was done for Trade Secret 2 and Trade Secret 2. It’s unclear if the figure included salaries or incentives, and it’s hard to imagine it takes that into account; Anthony Levandowski, the former Google engineer at the center of the Uber suit, earned a $1. Waymo didn’t immediately respond to a request for comment. Though it’s comparatively on par with others in the field—Uber, for its part, spent $6. ![]() Levandowski’s self- driving truck startup Otto—Waymo’s considered at the front of the pack in the self- driving car race. The $1. 1 billion figure is almost certainly something it didn’t want uncovered, but with a ferocious number of legal briefs being filed in the Uber case, just a month ahead before its trial is supposed to begin, it’s not exactly a surprise that a redaction is missed once in awhile. How to install Linux on a USB flash drive. Nothing can beat having a great Linux distro installed on a super- fast hard drive, with all your favourite apps configured just how you like them and all your files at your fingertips. But this has one major drawback: perfect as your setup is, it's also just one machine, and sooner or later you'll be forced to leave that computer behind and use something else. Something that might run Windows. Something that might not even have Firefox. Because no one likes being parted from their data for too long, we present a smarter option: store it all on a USB flash drive.. In older days, you were able to store Linux on a CD and use a flash drive just to save changes. 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It's likely there are other distros out there that work with similar or perhaps even identical instructions, but Ubuntu and Fedora are the big two so we stuck with them. One of the first thing you encounter when switching to free software are people who want to let you know all a bout the difference between free beer and free speech, and that's all very nice. But for most us, nearly all our software is free of cost and free to modify, so in our minds we balk at the idea of paying for functionality. However, if you want to put Linux on a flash drive you really do have to fork out and buy some hardware, so if you don't already have a good flash drive you need to read this first. There are five things you'll want to consider when buying the perfect flash drive for Linux. If we order them with the most important first, it looks like this: Reliability. 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You can search for the sub-folder name (without the braces {}) in the.Danny, I have tried to install Ubuntu on my HP Envy(bought in July 2013), both with Windows and, eventually without; after last summer's "Security Update" borked. If cost is an issue, the best value drive sizes right now are 4. GB or 8. GB. Speed. The simple rule here is "pay more, get more". Companies such as OCZ and Corsair specialise in high- performance devices - Corsair even makes a special range of flash drives (known as 'GT') that are made from extra- fast components. Remember, your entire computer will be running from this tiny device, so only go for a slow drive if you're a very, very patient person. Size. Arguably the least important consideration is the actual physical size of the flash drive. Even if you needed to upgrade your current computer, it’s probably easier to adjust to a new version of Windows, than to learn a completely different operating. This guide shows how to make a bootable USB of Windows operating system to quickly install Windows from a USB drive instead of DVD. This isn't usually a problem because all flash drives are necessarily small, and it's only if you're after a particularly tiny one that you even need to consider this. San. Disk's Cruzer Micro and Corsair's Flash Voyager Mini both come in 4. GB and 8. GB capacities, despite being less than half the size of conventional drives. Make your choice. There are two distinct ways of running Linux from a flash drive, but we'll only be covering one of them here - and for good reason, as you'll see. The two ways are: using your flash drive as a Live CD, and using the drive as a full Linux install. Perhaps surprisingly, the first option is the better one for several reasons: Live CDs scan the hardware at boot time, and so are likely to be compatible with the most machines. Live CDs must by necessity have a small footprint, which means there's more space for your files - or you can just buy a smaller, cheaper drive. Live CDs run as much as they can in RAM, which makes for better performance. Live CDs don't use swap. That last point is actually the most important one of all: Linux makes extensive use of hard drives to save temporary data, and if you treat your flash drive as a real hard drive then Linux will use it for swap, too. The problem is that flash drives, like all flash memory devices, have a limited number of times they can be written to before they fail. Most drives are able to withstand 1. Again, this is a reliability factor, so if you care for keeping your data intact for a long time it's worth you buying a trusted brand. Just how fast is it? As fast as flash memory is compared with mechanical hard disks, it's still limited by the throughput of USB. But on the upside, the lack of swap availability means that Linux will take advantage of your RAM much more, which means the most commonly accessed data will be just as fast if not faster when using USB drives. If you're used to using a Live CD, you'll also be pleased to know there's much less noise (the triple- digit decibel whir of a busy DVD drive is, of course, absent with flash drives), and there's also none of the latency that usually happens when the OS lets the DVD drive go idle. On the flip side, the nature of Live distros means they must detect their environment during boot up, so expect boot times to be a bit longer. Do it with Ubuntu. Ubuntu 8. 1. 0 doesn't contain much in the 'wow' department, but it does come with a USB installation wizard as standard. This works by mimicking the Casper system of running a live operating system from read- only media - with the exception that flash drives aren't read- only, so you can actually make changes to the OS. Even after Ubuntu is installed to your drive, it still looks and feels as if it works in Live mode, so you'll be prompted to choose a language when it boots up. This might seem like an annoyance, but it does come with the added bonus that the Ubuntu hard disk installer is always within reach - you can use your flash drive as an Ubuntu installer on as many PCs as you want. Get Ubuntu on your flash drive. Start the app. Plug in the drive - Once the app is running, go ahead and plug in your flash drive. Ubuntu will automatically mount the drive, and it will appear in the USB startup disk window. Download Ubuntu - Now download the version of Ubuntu you want to use. It doesn't matter whether it's 3. LTS or 8. 1. 0. If you have an Ubuntu CD handy, you can use that. Select your ISO - Click on the Other button to choose the ISO you just downloaded. If you have a real CD, it should be auto- detected. Choose free space - Make sure you specify that documents and settings be stored in reserved extra space, then drag the slider up as far as you want it. Don't worry - the space for the Live CD image is automatically deducted. Sit back and wait - When you're ready, click Make Startup Disk, then sit back and wait - it will take a few minutes to copy the image, and if you have a large flash drive you can expect it to take up to 1. Reboot your PC - When the installer finishes, click Quit then reboot your computer. This is the tricky part: you need to press a key to get to your BIOS boot screen then choose the right device. Booting from your flash drive. The more advanced your motherboard, the more options you will have to boot from. But sometimes even the best motherboards don't have a USB booting option - even though they support it. To get started, read the BIOS output when your computer boots up and note down which key you have to press to select your boot device. Some BIOSes don't have such a screen, so you may need to go into the setup system to manually reorder your boot devices. Default Router Username / Passwords / IPAztech 3. E 1. 0. 0. 0. Aztech DSL6. 00. ER 1. Billion Bipack 5. Kasda 1. 92. Riger DB1. 02/ DB1. ![]() Triz 1. ZTE 8. 31 1. ADSL expert. 03. D- link DSL5. T 1. 92. 1. 68. Prolink hurricane 9. · a router modem tat provided by TMNET (from free modem package, except from billion router modem, blue color, forgot the model name) default gateway:192.168.1.1. ![]() SMC barricade 7. 90. Added on August 7, 2. Aztech 3. 05. E 1. Aztech DSL6. 00. ER 1. Billion Bipack 5. Kasda 1. 92. Riger DB1. 02/ DB1. РАБОТНО ВРЕМЕ на магазина офиса и склада : ПОНЕДЕЛНИК, ВТОРНИК и СРЯДА от 09:00 до 18:00 tелефон. Príručka pre príbuzných pacientov závislých od psychoaktívnych látok - článok na cpldz-bb.sk. Triz 1. ZTE 8. 31 1. ADSL expert. 03. D- link DSL5. T 1. 92. 1. 68. Prolink hurricane 9. SMC barricade 7. 90. This post has been edited by shellit: Aug 7 2. ![]() ![]() · DNA polymerases are versatile tools used in numerous important molecular biological core technologies like the ubiquitous polymerase chain reaction (PCR.Transcriptome analysis reveals that constant heat stress modifies the metabolism and structure of the porcine longissimus dorsi skeletal muscle. Q.1-The monomeric deoxyribonucleotide units of DNA include all except-A) Deoxyadenylate, B) Deoxyguanylate. C) Deoxycytidylate, D) Deoxyuridylate. DNA polymerase - Wikipedia. In molecular biology, DNA polymerases are enzymes that synthesize DNAmolecules from deoxyribonucleotides, the building blocks of DNA. These enzymes are essential to DNA replication and usually work in pairs to create two identical DNA strands from a single original DNA molecule. During this process, DNA polymerase "reads" the existing DNA strands to create two new strands that match the existing ones.[1][2][3][4][5][6]These enzymes catalyze the following chemical reactiondeoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn ⇌ diphosphate + DNAn+1. Catalyses DNA- template- directed extension of the 3'- end of a DNA strand by one nucleotide at a time. Every time a cell divides, DNA polymerases are required to help duplicate the cell's DNA, so that a copy of the original DNA molecule can be passed to each daughter cell. In this way, genetic information is passed down from generation to generation. Before replication can take place, an enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA molecule from its tightly woven form, in the process breaking the hydrogen bonds between the annealed nucleotide bases. This opens up or "unzips" the double- stranded DNA to give two single strands of DNA that can be used as templates for replication. Contents. 1History. Function. 3Variation across species. Prokaryotic DNA polymerases. Eukaryotic DNA polymerase. Polymerases β, λ, σ and μ (beta, lambda, sigma, and mu)3. Polymerases α, δ and ε (alpha, delta, and epsilon)3. Polymerases η, ι and κ (eta, iota, and kappa)3. Polymerases Rev. 1 and ζ (zeta)3. Telomerase. 3. 2. Polymerases γ and θ (gamma and theta)3. Polymerase ν (nu)3. Reverse transcriptase. See also. 5References. Further reading. 7External links. History[edit]In 1. Arthur Kornberg and colleagues discovered DNA polymerase I (Pol I), in Escherichia coli. They described the DNA replication process by which DNA polymerase copies the base sequence of a template DNA strand. Kornberg was later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1. DNA polymerase II was also discovered by Thomas Kornberg (the son of Arthur Kornberg)[8] and Malcolm E. Gefter in 1. 97. 0 while further elucidating the role of Pol I in E. DNA replication.[9]Function[edit]. DNA polymerase moves along the old strand in the 3'- 5' direction, creating a new strand having a 5'- 3' direction. DNA polymerase with proofreading ability. The main function of DNA polymerase is to synthesize DNA from deoxyribonucleotides, the building blocks of DNA. The DNA copies are created by the pairing of nucleotides to bases present on each strand of the original DNA molecule. This pairing always occurs in specific combinations, with cytosine along with guanine, and thymine along with adenine, forming two separate pairs, respectively. By contrast, RNA polymerases synthesize RNA from ribonucleotides from either RNA or DNA. When synthesizing new DNA, DNA polymerase can add free nucleotides only to the 3' end of the newly forming strand. This results in elongation of the newly forming strand in a 5'- 3' direction. No known DNA polymerase is able to begin a new chain (de novo); it can only add a nucleotide onto a pre- existing 3'- OH group, and therefore needs a primer at which it can add the first nucleotide. Primers consist of RNA or DNA bases (or both). In DNA replication, the first two bases are always RNA, and are synthesized by another enzyme called primase. Enzymes, helicase and topoisomerase II, are required to unwind DNA from a double- strand structure to a single- strand structure to facilitate replication of each strand consistent with the semiconservative model of DNA replication. It is important to note that the directionality of the newly forming strand (the daughter strand) is opposite to the direction in which DNA polymerase moves along the template strand. Since DNA polymerase requires a free 3' OH group for initiation of synthesis, it can synthesize in only one direction by extending the 3' end of the preexisting nucleotide chain. Hence, DNA polymerase moves along the template strand in a 3'- 5' direction, and the daughter strand is formed in a 5'- 3' direction. This difference enables the resultant double- strand DNA formed to be composed of two DNA strands that are antiparallel to each other. The function of DNA polymerase is not quite perfect, with the enzyme making about one mistake for every billion base pairs copied. Error correction is a property of some, but not all DNA polymerases. This process corrects mistakes in newly synthesized DNA. When an incorrect base pair is recognized, DNA polymerase moves backwards by one base pair of DNA. The 3'- 5' exonuclease activity of the enzyme allows the incorrect base pair to be excised (this activity is known as proofreading). Following base excision, the polymerase can re- insert the correct base and replication can continue forwards. This preserves the integrity of the original DNA strand that is passed onto the daughter cells. Fidelity is very important in DNA replication. Mismatches in DNA base pairing can potentially result in dysfunctional proteins and could lead to cancer. Many DNA polymerase contain an exonuclease domain, which acts in detecting base pair mismatches and further performs in the removal of the incorrect nucleotide to be replaced by the correct one.[1. The shape and the interactions accommodating the Watson and Crick base pair are what primarily contribute to the detection or error. Hydrogen bonds play a key role in base pair binding and interaction. The loss of an interaction, which occurs at a mismatch, is said to trigger a shift in the balance, for the binding of the template- primer, from the polymerase, to the exonuclease domain. In addition, an incorporation of a wrong nucleotide causes a retard in DNA polymerization. This delay gives time for the DNA to be switched from the polymerase site to the exonuclease site. Different conformational changes and loss of interaction occur at different mismatches. In a purine: pyrimidine mismatch there is a displacement of the pyrimidine towards the major groove and the purine towards the minor groove. Relative to the shape of DNA polymerase’s binding pocket, steric clashes occur between the purine and residues in the minor groove, and important van der Waals and electrostatic interactions are lost by the pyrimidine.[1. Pyrimidine: pyrimidine and purine: purine mismatches present less notable changes since the bases are displaced towards the major groove, and less steric hindrance is experienced. However, although the different mismatches result in different steric properties, DNA polymerase is still able to detect and differentiate them so uniformly and maintain fidelity in DNA replication.[1. Structure[edit]The known DNA polymerases have highly conserved structure, which means that their overall catalytic subunits vary very little from species to species, independent of their domain structures. Conserved structures usually indicate important, irreplaceable functions of the cell, the maintenance of which provides evolutionary advantages. The shape can be described as resembling a right hand with thumb, finger, and palm domains. The palm domain appears to function in catalyzing the transfer of phosphoryl groups in the phosphoryl transfer reaction. DNA is bound to the palm when the enzyme is active. This reaction is believed to be catalyzed by a two- metal- ion mechanism. The finger domain functions to bind the nucleoside triphosphates with the template base. The thumb domain plays a potential role in the processivity, translocation, and positioning of the DNA.[1. Processivity[edit]DNA polymerase’s rapid catalysis is due to its processive nature. Processivity is a characteristic of enzymes that function on polymeric substrates. In the case of DNA polymerase, the degree of processivity refers to the average number of nucleotides added each time the enzyme binds a template. The average DNA polymerase requires about one second locating and binding a primer/template junction. Once it is bound, a nonprocessive DNA polymerase adds nucleotides at a rate of one nucleotide per second.[1. Processive DNA polymerases, however, add multiple nucleotides per second, drastically increasing the rate of DNA synthesis. The degree of processivity is directly proportional to the rate of DNA synthesis. The rate of DNA synthesis in a living cell was first determined as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage infected E. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 3. C, the rate was 7. Polymerase chain reaction - Wikipedia. A strip of eight PCR tubes, each containing a 1. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. It is an easy, cheap, and reliable way to repeatedly replicate a focused segment of DNA, a concept which is applicable to numerous fields in modern biology and related sciences.[1]Developed in 1. Kary Mullis,[2][3] PCR is now a common and often indispensable technique used in clinical and research laboratories for a broad variety of applications.[4][5] These include DNA cloning for sequencing, gene cloning and manipulation, gene mutagenesis; construction of DNA- based phylogenies, or functional analysis of genes; diagnosis and monitoring of hereditary diseases; amplification of ancient DNA; [6] analysis of genetic fingerprints for DNA profiling (for example, in forensic science and parentage testing); and detection of pathogens in nucleic acid tests for the diagnosis of infectious diseases. In 1. 99. 3, Mullis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Michael Smith for his work on PCR.[7]The vast majority of PCR methods rely on thermal cycling, which involves exposing the reactants to cycles of repeated heating and cooling, permitting different temperature- dependent reactions—specifically, DNA melting and enzyme- driven DNA replication—to quickly proceed many times in sequence. Primers (short DNA fragments) containing sequences complementary to the target region, along with a DNA polymerase, after which the method is named, enable selective and repeated amplification. As PCR progresses, the DNA generated is itself used as a template for replication, setting in motion a chain reaction in which the original DNA template is exponentially amplified. The simplicity of the basic principle underlying PCR means it can be extensively modified to perform a wide array of genetic manipulations. PCR is not generally considered to be a recombinant DNA method, as it does not involve cutting and pasting DNA, only amplification of existing sequences. Almost all PCR applications employ a heat- stable DNA polymerase, such as Taq polymerase, an enzyme originally isolated from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus aquaticus. This DNA polymerase enzymatically assembles a new DNA strand from free nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA, by using single- stranded DNA as a template and DNA oligonucleotides (the primers mentioned above) to initiate DNA synthesis. In the first step, the two strands of the DNA double helix are physically separated at a high temperature in a process called DNA melting. In the second step, the temperature is lowered and the two DNA strands become templates for DNA polymerase to selectively amplify the target DNA. The selectivity of PCR results from the use of primers that are complementary to sequence around the DNA region targeted for amplification under specific thermal cycling conditions. Principles[edit]PCR amplifies a specific region of a DNA strand (the DNA target). Most PCR methods amplify DNA fragments of between 0. The amount of amplified product is determined by the available substrates in the reaction, which become limiting as the reaction progresses.[9]A basic PCR set- up requires several components and reagents,[1. DNA template that contains the DNA target region to amplifya DNA polymerase, an enzyme that polymerizes new DNA strands; heat- resistant Taq polymerase is especially common,[1. DNA denaturation processtwo DNA primers that are complementary to the 3' (three prime) ends of each of the sense and anti- sense strands of the DNA target (DNA polymerase can only bind to and elongate from a double- stranded region of DNA; without primers there is no double- stranded initiation site at which the polymerase can bind); [1] specific primers that are complementary to the DNA target region are selected beforehand, and are often custom- made in a laboratory or purchased from commercial biochemical suppliersdeoxynucleoside triphosphates, or d. NTPs (sometimes called "deoxynucleotide triphosphates"; nucleotides containing triphosphate groups), the building blocks from which the DNA polymerase synthesizes a new DNA stranda buffer solution providing a suitable chemical environment for optimum activity and stability of the DNA polymerasebivalentcations, typically magnesium (Mg) or manganese (Mn) ions; Mg. Mn. 2+ can be used for PCR- mediated DNA mutagenesis, as a higher Mn. DNA synthesis[1. 2]monovalent cations, typically potassium (K) ions. The reaction is commonly carried out in a volume of 1. The thermal cycler heats and cools the reaction tubes to achieve the temperatures required at each step of the reaction (see below). Many modern thermal cyclers make use of the Peltier effect, which permits both heating and cooling of the block holding the PCR tubes simply by reversing the electric current. Thin- walled reaction tubes permit favorable thermal conductivity to allow for rapid thermal equilibration. Most thermal cyclers have heated lids to prevent condensation at the top of the reaction tube. Older thermal cyclers lacking a heated lid require a layer of oil on top of the reaction mixture or a ball of wax inside the tube. Procedure[edit]Typically, PCR consists of a series of 2. The cycling is often preceded by a single temperature step at a very high temperature (> 9. C (1. 94 °F)), and followed by one hold at the end for final product extension or brief storage. The temperatures used and the length of time they are applied in each cycle depend on a variety of parameters, including the enzyme used for DNA synthesis, the concentration of bivalent ions and d. NTPs in the reaction, and the melting temperature (Tm) of the primers.[1. The individual steps common to most PCR methods are as follows: Initialization: This step is only required for DNA polymerases that require heat activation by hot- start PCR.[1. It consists of heating the reaction chamber to a temperature of 9. C (2. 01–2. 05 °F), or 9. C (2. 08 °F) if extremely thermostable polymerases are used, which is then held for 1–1. Denaturation: This step is the first regular cycling event and consists of heating the reaction chamber to 9. C (2. 01–2. 08 °F) for 2. This causes DNA melting, or denaturation, of the double- stranded DNA template by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary bases, yielding two single- stranded DNA molecules. Annealing: In the next step, the reaction temperature is lowered to 5. C (1. 22–1. 49 °F) for 2. DNA templates. Two different primers are typically included in the reaction mixture: one for each of the two single- stranded complements containing the target region. The primers are single- stranded sequences themselves, but are much shorter than the length of the target region, complementing only very short sequences at the 3' end of each strand. It is critical to determine a proper temperature for the annealing step because efficiency and specificity are strongly affected by the annealing temperature. This temperature must be low enough to allow for hybridization of the primer to the strand, but high enough for the hybridization to be specific, i. If the temperature is too low, the primer may bind imperfectly. If it is too high, the primer may not bind at all. A typical annealing temperature is about 3–5 °C below the Tm of the primers used. Stable hydrogen bonds between complementary bases are formed only when the primer sequence very closely matches the template sequence. During this step, the polymerase binds to the primer- template hybrid and begins DNA formation. Extension/elongation: The temperature at this step depends on the DNA polymerase used; the optimum activity temperature for Taq polymerase is approximately 7. C (1. 67–1. 76 °F),[1. C (1. 62 °F) is commonly used with this enzyme. In this step, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a new DNA strand complementary to the DNA template strand by adding free d. NTPs from the reaction mixture that are complementary to the template in the 5'- to- 3' direction, condensing the 5'- phosphate group of the d. NTPs with the 3'- hydroxy group at the end of the nascent (elongating) DNA strand. The precise time required for elongation depends both on the DNA polymerase used and on the length of the DNA target region to amplify. Libro - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre. Un libro (del latínliber, libri) es una obra impresa, manuscrita o pintada en una serie de hojas de papel, pergamino, vitela u otro material, unidas por un lado (es decir, encuadernadas) y protegidas con tapas, también llamadas cubiertas. Un libro puede tratar sobre cualquier tema. Según la definición de la Unesco,[1] un libro debe poseer 2. También se llama "libro" a una obra de gran extensión publicada en varias unidades independientes, llamados "tomos" o "volúmenes". Otras veces se llama también "libro" a cada una de las partes de una obra, aunque físicamente se publiquen todas en un mismo volumen (ejemplo: Libros de la Biblia). Hoy en día, no obstante, esta definición no queda circunscrita al mundo impreso o de los soportes físicos, dada la aparición y auge de los nuevos formatos documentales y especialmente de la World Wide Web. El libro digital o libro electrónico, conocido como e- book, está viendo incrementado su uso en el mundo del libro y en la práctica profesional bibliotecaria y documental. Además, el libro también puede encontrarse en formato audio, en cuyo caso se denomina audiolibro. Desde los orígenes, la humanidad ha tenido que hacer frente a una cuestión fundamental: la forma de preservar y transmitir su cultura, es decir, sus creencias y conocimientos, tanto en el espacio como en el tiempo. 9781600448638 1600448631 Que Se Puede Hacer Con el Agua?, Marcia S Freeman 9783639060874 3639060873 Fruit and Vegetable Consumption and Risk of Epithelial Ovarian. Web oficial de la Universidad de A Coruña. Enlaces a centros, departamentos, servicios, planes de estudios. ![]() El planteamiento de esta cuestión supone: por un lado, determinar la forma de garantizar la integridad intelectual del contenido de la obra y la conservación del soporte en el que fue plasmada, y por otro, encontrar el medio por el cual se mantendrá inalterada la intención o finalidad para la cual se concibió. Los orígenes de la historia del libro se remontan a las primeras manifestaciones pictóricas de nuestros antepasados, la pintura rupestre del hombre del paleolítico. Con un simbolismo, posiblemente cargado de significados mágicos, estas pinturas muestran animales, cacerías y otras escenas cotidianas del entorno natural del hombre antiguo, que trataba de dominar las fuerzas adversas de la naturaleza capturando su esencia mediante su representación. Son el más antiguo precedente de los primeros documentos impresos de que se tiene memoria. Comunicación oral y formas rudimentarias[editar]Las señales gestuales fueron la primera forma de expresar y transmitir mensajes. La palabra hablada es la manera más antigua de contar historias. Mediante fórmulas de valor mnemotécnico[2] se estructuraban narraciones, que pasaban de generación en generación como valiosa herencia cultural de los más diversos grupos humanos. Dichas reglas mnemotécnicas ayudaban tanto a la memorización como a la difusión de los relatos. Es el caso de los poemas homéricos, que han merecido valiosos estudios sobre el particular. Posiblemente, gran parte de las tradiciones y leyendas han tenido semejante inicio. Need For Speed Carbon Patch Lingua Italiana Scuola SuperioreEsta transmisión oral tenía el inconveniente de los «ruidos» que deformaban el mensaje. La mayoría de las veces era el narrador (rapsoda, aeda, juglar) quien en función de sus intereses la deformaba de una u otra forma. La escritura[editar]Cuando los sistemas de escritura fueron inventados en las antiguas civilizaciones, el hombre utilizó diversos soportes de escritura: tablillas de arcilla, ostracon, placas de hueso o marfil, tablas de madera, papiros, tablillas enceradas, planchas de plomo, pieles curtidas, etc. La escritura fue el resultado de un proceso lento de evolución con diversos pasos: imágenes que reproducían objetos cotidianos (pictografía); representación mediante símbolos (ideografía); y la reproducción de sílabas y letras. Los más antiguos vestigios de escritura se encuentran, hacia finales del IV milenio a. C., en el Antiguo Egipto, con jeroglíficos, y la antigua Mesopotamia, mediante signos cuneiformes (escritura cuneiforme; utilizaban una varilla con sección triangular, que al hendir en placas de arcilla, dejaba una marca en forma de cuña). La usaron los sumerios, acadios, asirios, hititas, persas, babilonios etc. La escritura egipcia, que perduró más de tres milenios, mediante jeroglíficos, representaba ideas abstractas, objetos, palabras, sílabas, letras y números. Evolucionó en las escrituras hierática y demótica. Otros pueblos, como los hititas y los aztecas también tuvieron tipos propios de escritura. La escritura china más antigua que se conoce son 5. C. en el yacimiento de Xiaotun, en la provincia de Henan. Pero los primeros libros reconocibles de China corresponden al siglo VI a. Un libro (del latín liber, libri) es una obra impresa, manuscrita o pintada en una serie de hojas de papel, pergamino, vitela u otro material, unidas por un lado (es. Etimologia del termine. La parola italiana libro deriva dal latino liber. Il vocabolo originariamente significava anche "corteccia", ma visto che era un materiale. 9781882239177 1882239172 Emerging Concepts of Rights in Japanese Law 9780761434450 0761434453 DOS, Dana Meachen Rau 9781929395590 1929395590 Easy Holiday Songs - A. C., los jiance o jiandu, rollos de finas tiras de bambú o madera grabados con tinta indeleble y atados con cordel. Estos textos servían principalmente a causas institucionales , era la obra de funcionarios civiles o militares.[3]Desde Confucio en adelante (5. C.) los libros se convirtieron en importantes instrumentos de aprendizaje, se escribieron tratados de filosofía, medicina, astronomía y cartografía. En el período de los reinos combatientes (4. C.) La seda se usó mucho como soporte para escribir. Need For Speed Carbon Patch Lingua Italiana Scuola LeonardoLa tela era ligera, resistente al clima húmedo, absorbía bien la tinta y proporcionaba al texto un fondo blanco, sin embargo era mucho más cara que el bambú, es por esto que en ocasiones se hacía una copia en bambú antes de grabarse en seda los textos importantes. La invención del papel según la tradición china, se atribuye a un eunuco de la corte imperial llamado Cai Lin en el 1. C. Usando nuevos ingredientes (trapos viejos, cáñamo, corteza de árbol y redes de pescar) creó un método de fabricación de papel muy similar al que se usa hoy en día. Pero el papel tardó cientos de años en reemplazar al bambú y la seda, fue hasta finales del siglo II d. C. que la corte imperial lo usó en cantidades importantes. Esta innovación no se propagó fuera de China hasta el 6. C. aproximadamente, y alcanzó Europa a través de España hasta el siglo XII. A mediados del siglo VIII los chinos inventaron la impresión xilográfica, o el grabado en madera, y la necesidad de reproducir un gran número de textos e imágenes budistas, calendarios, manuales de adivinación y diccionarios promovió una rápida y temprana propagación de la xilografía. El primer libro impreso chino que se ha encontrado es el Sutra del diamante del 8. C. Los impresores chinos crearon los tipos móviles hacia el siglo XI, el escritor chino Ch'en Kua (1. Mengshi Pitan), según el escritor el herrero Jen. Tsung de la dinastía de los Song del norte entre 1. También se le atribuye la creación de una mesa giratoria para guardar los caracteres, esta técnica se llamaba tipografía tablearia. Hacia el 1. 30. 0 Wang- Tcheng, un técnico agrónomo, emplazó la arcilla por madera de azufaifo, que era mucho más dura. Pero este avance no revolucionó la imprenta hasta el punto que lo hizo Gutenberg en Europa 4. A diferencia de las lenguas europeas, el chino escrito requiere miles de caracteres únicos, lo que hace mucho más eficaz los bloques de madera individuales que los enormes conjuntos de tipos reutilizables. ![]() En contraste con el declive de las artes de los escribas en occidente en los siglos que siguieron a la creación de la imprenta de tipos móviles, la caligrafía china conservó su prestigio, era un arte. No obstante, a finales del siglo XV, China había producido más libros que el resto del mundo junto. Los árabes aprendieron la técnica para fabricar papel de sus contactos con China en el siglo VIII, y este se introdujo en Europa en el siglo XII a través de la España musulmana.[3]La obra xilográfica más antigua encontrada hasta nuestros días es el Dharani Sutra de Corea, datado en el 7. C., aunque no se sabe quién fue el inventor de la xilografía los chinos y coreanos fueron los que impulsaron la impresión xilográfica, principalmente para editar textos religiosos. El budismo chino y coreano fue el vehículo que trasmitió la xilografía a Japón. Pero Corea realizó muchos otros avances que revolucionaron la manera de imprimir y en consecuencia el libro. Entre 1. 23. 4 y 1.Gwanghwa, debido a la invasión mongol, no disponían de madera dura fue entonces que imprimieron 2.Go geum sang jeong ye mun con caracteres móviles metálicos. La obra del año 1.Más tarde el rey Taejong puso en funcionamiento un taller que contribuía a la difusión de la escritura y en 1.Jujaso, donde se fabricaban caracteres móviles de imprenta, realizó la primera fundición de tipos móviles en bronce. |
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November 2017
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